Democracy in Athens | Essay

Democracy in Athens | Essay Where did the real power lie in Athens’ radical democracy? Fifth-century, Athenian democracy has often served as a paradigm for democratic radicalism: from the French and American Revolutions to contemporary Anarchist Thought. And yet, the historical reality of the Athenian constitution may have been very different to what modern ideologues have envisaged. Was Athenian democracy truly a ‘rule by the many’, as the Greek word suggests? Or did the upper classes maintain their grasp over ‘real power’ down to the 4th century? This serious tension is exemplified in two contrasting passages in Thucydides’ narrative. In the so-called ‘Funeral Oration’, Thucydides has his Pericles proudly declare that ‘our constitution is called a democracy because power is in the hands not of a minority but of the whole people’[1]; but a few chapters later Thucydides will turn this statement on its head by claiming that ‘in what was nominally a democracy power was really in the hands of one man’ : Pericles himself[2]. This essay will argue that although ‘real power’ did indeed reside with the demos, in practice a special position was reserved for wealthy citizens who would dominate the assembly as orators. Democracy first emerged in the end of the 6th century as a reaction to ‘stasis’ or civil strife[3]. The Cleisthenic reforms of 508-7 BC resulted in an isonomic constitution, founded on ten new tribes and the reorganization of Attica in demes, while the assembly, archons, Council of Areopagus and Heliaea still functioned as they had done under Solon and Peisistratus. The new council of 500, based on the 10 tribes, was now gradually replacing the aristocratic institution of the Areopagus, while the extensive use of lot in selecting the officials, emphasized the equality of all citizens, who now enjoyed equal political rights in the election of officials whether at the deme level (demarche), the tribal level (general) or the state level (archons and councillors). Democratic reforms continued throughout the 5th century. In 501/0 the importance of the archonships was greatly reduced by the introduction of the ten strategoi (generals). By 487 archons were selected by lot, whil e in 462 the democratic leader Ephialtes was assassinated for his involvement in further weakening the jurisdiction of the Areopagus[4]. Soon after, Pericles will introduce political pay of jurors and other officials while even the chief archonships were now opened to smallholders and -at least in theory- to the thetes. In post-Periclean Athens, a new generation of wealthy non-aristocrats like Cleon, Hyperbolus and Androcles dominated the Athenian political scene as ‘champions of the people’ and promoted further the interests of the Athenian masses. The Athenian constitution of the middle and late 5th century was therefore a genuinely popular constitution, a form of government that was primarily concerned with improving the welfare of the citizen mass. The Athenian demos was empowered with direct voting in the Assembly and the popular jury-courts, by raising hands, drawing ballots, or inscribing on ostraca. They enjoyed political liberty, freedom of speech and equality before the law. The people –rather than the Areopagus- were directly responsible for the examination  of one’s conduct while in office[5]. With respect to foreign policy, democratic Athens embarked on a staunched imperialistic policy which entailed significant benefits for the citizen mass. Measures such as state pay for jurors, Assembly members and sailors, the cleruchies, the liturgies and the eisphorae imposed on the rich, were tantamount to an indirect form of redistribution of state funds to the lower classes. Yet in practice the Athenian democracy retained a hint of elitism throughout its long history. Politicians -democrats and oligarchs alike- were always members of the upper classes of Athenian society. Cleisthenes, Alcibiades and Pericles himself were all members of the Alcmeonid family, one of the oldest and most illustrious ‘gene’ of Attica. And even ‘new men’ like Cleon and Hyperbolus or even Demosthenes were wealthy enough to afford the appropriate rhetorical education provided by the sophists. While the wider demos would exercise its political power by voting for or against the issue at stake, it was always men from the propertied classes that would put forth a proposal or move a decree. As a consequence Athenian politics tended to be personal rather than ideological, revolving around personal charisma and rhetorical skills rather than party organization[6]. This explains the typical view expressed by conservatives such as Thucydides, Aristophanes and Pl ato that the demos was always being ‘led’ by the ‘rhetores’: led wisely under Pericles, and led astray by his ‘lesser’ successors[7]. While acknowledging the special role played by these wealthy Athenians vis-à  -vis the citizen mass one should dismiss the oligarchic view of the Athenian demos as a naà ¯ve, passive spectator of the rhetorical skills of its leaders as an exaggeration. Athenian Assemblies were proverbially harsh in holding their leaders responsible for failures. One should think of the aftermath of Arginusai in 406 BC and the fate of Thucydides himself[8]. Even Pericles’ own political career was far from rosy. As one reads through Plutarch’s ‘Life of Pericles’ the Thucydidean concept of Athens as ‘essentially the rule by one man’ seems less and less plausible. Pericles, his wife and his protà ©gà ©s, Pheidias and Anaxagoras, were repeatedly -and often successfully- prosecuted by political opponents like Thucydides son of Melesias[9]; his sons were never granted an Athenian citizenship despite his passionate plea before the Assembly; and a fine was imposed o n him when the invading Spartans pillaged most other country estates but not his[10]. Unfair as these measures may sound, they demonstrate that even the ‘Olympian’ was susceptible to the fierce criticism of the Ecclesia. The Athenian demos was not only one of the most powerful citizen bodies in the Greek world; it was also the most experienced and demanding when it came to judging personalities, abstract concepts, law cases, policy recommendations or even theatrical plays. Politicians could come and go but the Athenians knew that the final word would always rest with the demos. BIBLIOGRAPHY Hornblower, S. (2002): ‘The Greek World: 479-323 BC’, New York: Routledge. Meiggs, R. (1999): ‘The Athenian Empire’, Oxford: Oxford University Press. D. Lewis [ed.](1988): ‘A Selection of Greek Historical Inscriptions’, Oxford: Clarendon Press. Wilcken, U. (1962): ‘Griechshe Geschichte: im Rahmen der Altertumsgeschichte, Mà ¼nchen. Plutarch, ‘Life of Kimon’, Bernadotte Perrin [trans] available in the Perseus Digital Library, at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0182:text=Cim.:chapter=1:section=1 accessed on 15.03.2006. Plutarch, ‘Life of Pericles’, Bernadotte Perrin [trans] available in the Perseus Digital Library, at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0182:text=Per.:chapter=1:section=1, accessed on 15.03.2006. (Pseudo-)Aristotle, ‘The Athenian Constitution’, G. Kenyon [trans], available in the Perseus Digital Library, at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0046query=head%3D%2316, accessed on 15.03.2006. Thucydides, ‘History of the Peloponnesian War’, original and translation in G. P. Goold [ed], Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1998. 1 Footnotes [1] Thucydides, II. 43 [2] ibid., II. 65. [3] For the relation between stasis and democratic reforms see Pseudo-Aristotle, 20.1: ‘Cleisthenes, getting the worse of the party struggle, attached the people to his following by proposing to give political power to the masses’. [4] For the weakening of the Areopagus see Plutarch, ‘LÄ ±fe of Kimon’, 15 and Aeschelus, ‘Oresteia’; for dating the introduction of the lot see Hornblower (2002:25) and Meiggs Lewis(1988:89-94); for the first recorded instance of a paid council see Thucydides, VIII, 69. [5] All greek words in brackets are taken from Pericles’ Funeral Oration. [6] Hornblower (2002:25) [7] Thucydides, II. 65 [8] ibid. IV, 104-7 [9] Plutarch, ‘Life of Pericles’, 32 [10] Thucydides, II. 65

Advantages And Disadvantages Of An Armed Public

It is believed that the safest nations have very strict gun control laws. This strong gun control laws enhances a lower crime rate but that is not always the case. Virginia’s homicide rate is low among other states like the state of Maryland, where unless one is a police or federal officer it is illegal to carry a handgun. (Joyner, 2004).Many will argue that carrying firearms does not make America more dangerous but instead much safer. With a positive thought, if everyone were armed, crime would drop to an all time low. It's just a matter of weather you are educated in this matter or just shooting from the hip. (Kopel, 1995).The result of this is that a law-abiding citizen can get licenses to carry concealed firearms. With the gun crazies and their paranoia such as crazy shooting similar to the massacre at Virginia Tech, and the violence nannies and their hysteria such as drug related shootings, the issue of legalizing or not remains an ever more complicated mess.This paper ad dresses this issue by relating the advantages and disadvantages of an armed public.Pros Of An Armed Public Most legislatures have failed to reach a compromise on some significant issues like concealed carry gun laws and the issue continue bewildering. According to Al Marzouqi on The Badger Herald (2007), he believes that the ban on concealed carry does not automatically translate to relatively low crime rate, which is an important aspect of the discussion.The absence of crime is not a proof that a policy is working. Laws to restrain criminals’ form acquiring weapons do not stop them especially when they are bound on breaking the law. All a ban on concealed carry does is to create a false sense of security that is all too often shattered by a tragedy and prevents law abiding citizens from defending themselves in such situations.Secondly In a small town, backup is sometimes an absent luxury; good citizens with personal firearms can save the situation. Thirdly many lives might b e saved, just by the presence of a gun without necessarily meaning presence of the police.The law does not state that police should always be of aid if called or requested for any help. Police are not required to help and they cannot be sued if they DON'T help.California's Government Code, Sections 821, 845, and 846 states, in part: â€Å"Neither a public entity or a public employee [may be sued] for failure to provide adequate police protection or service, failure to prevent the commission of crimes and failure to apprehend criminals.†Lastly the number of unregistered guns is actually unknown, but it is probably in the multi-millions like the registered ones.These guns would be most difficult to locate, though readily available to the criminals. Handguns are made everywhere too because they are legal in some states and therefore a booming business, so to be successful in eliminating guns in the US, one must shut down the entire world's ammunition industries and their sales c hannels, which is basically impossible.Therefore the issue of not legalizing does not decrease the number of illegal arms, the criminals would still be armed and lack of the legal guns in a system lives the ordinary citizen disarmed.It is logical that a bully with a gun would not attack someone they knew were armed. Guns reduce the number of attempted crimes because criminals are uncertain which potential victims can defend themselves. States with the largest increases in gun ownership also have the largest drops in violent crimes according to Lott on More guns, less crime in 2000.Criminals are deterred by higher penalties. Just as higher arrest and conviction rates deter crime, so does the risk that someone committing a crime will confront on someone able to defend him or herself.The horrific shooting in Arkansas occurred in one of the few places where having guns was already illegal. These laws risk creating situations in which the good guys cannot defend themselves from the bad o nes. (Lott, 2000)Cons Of An Armed Public A gun owner is more likely to accidentally shoot an innocent person than shoot the burglar because they are highly annoyed at the time of the conflict. Secondly allowing people to carry concealed weapons brings about the likelihood of them falling into the wrong hands. Laws concealed carry state that a person applying for a permit must satisfy an existing criterion.The proposed criteria include age restrictions, background checks, legal citizenship, gun safety classes and mental stability. It is believed that with such procedures, the risks of guns falling into the wrong hands would diminish but this is simply not the case. There are several fundamental flaws with these limitations, including the fault on the licensing body.Thirdly laws to legalize owning of firearms would mean that if individuals meet all criteria for the permit, then the state cannot under any circumstances, withhold it from them unless there exist other laws giving a super vising body the right to withhold a permit from a qualified person.Lastly, release of arms to the public means that they will be highly accessible to unauthorized persons such as children in a family setting who can be able to access majority of the family recourses in exception of the firearms. According to HRW in 2006, between 1985 and 1994, murders committed by children with guns more than tripled in America.Crime rates in England and Australia England has strict gun control but their firearms related crime statistic has been steadily increasing. Originally homicides did not increase with the invention of firearms, but instead seems to have fallen sharply as guns became more efficient and widely owned in England. (Kates, 2002).There are enough historical facts that refute claims that guns cause homicide. Violent crime did not increase with increased gun ownership nor did it decline with decreased gun ownership. Firearms closely correlate with car ownership than firearms ownership in England and Swaziland. Like demographics, Geographic’s of gun ownership relate inversely to crime.Conclusion Concealed carry permits should be issued to those who qualify and be revoked when misused. This would also mean that people are not guaranteed permits and if permitted the state should have a right to withhold on matters of security concerns. Responsibilities do go with rights, and many people often conveniently forget that little tradeoff.Gun violence still remains unsolved because it’s unpredictable and uncontrollable.In line with Kate on the issue of if guns cause crime, the best currently available evidence indicates that general gun availability has no measurable net positive effect on crime rates. Guns availability has many effects on violence increases or decreases with the effects largely canceling each other.References: Al Marzouqi, A. (2007, October 30). The Badger Herald. Retrieved 20th July 2008 from: http://badgerherald.com/oped/2007/10/30/happi ness_is_a_warm_.phpHuman Rights Watch (HRW). (2006). Juvenile Crime Rates: Retrieved 20th July 2008 from: http://hrw.org/reports/2005/us0205/4.htmJoyner, J. (2004, July 15). Virginia Gun Laws: Outside the Beltway (OTB). Retrieved 20th July 2008 from: http://www.outsidethebeltway.com/archives/2004/07/virginia_gun_laws/Kates, D. (2002, July 22). Do Guns Cause Crime: History News Network. Retrieved 20th July 2008 from: http://hnn.us/articles/871.htmlKopel, D. (1995). International Perspective on Gun Control: New York Law School Journal. Retrieved 20th July 2008 from: http://www.davekopel.com/2a/LawRev/lrnylstk.htmLott, J. (2000). More Guns, Less Crime: Understanding Crime and Gun control: university of Chicago.

Urban Outfitters, Inc.. Employee Self Assessment Form.

URBAN OUTFITTERS, INC. Employee Self Assessment Form Employee Name: Jasmine Tate Department: Training Employee Title: Training Coordinator Manager Name: Alisha Traynum Accomplishments (Describe your accomplishments in the past year against mutually understood goals and objectives for the position. Also, list any accomplishments you achieved which were outside of your general job role.) Instructed over 435 agents to prepare them to be successful employees at URBN Throughout the holiday classes, I increased my teaching time by teaching larger sections in both day and night classes. Designed Training Certificates to hand out to agents who earned a 100 on their assessment. Taught classes to email and chat agents using Needle and†¦show more content†¦Assisted in the gift card department by processing gift cards and alerts, throughout the holiday season. Growth (Describe the key competencies and performance factors you have developed, especially in the past year, to make yourself a more valuable and versatile member of the organization. How have you grown or what have you contributed towards the company’s growth.) Personal responsibility and accountability, my actions directly affect the team and the company. Gained proficiency in usage of KANA by working on emails during the holiday season this has made me feel more confident training email agents. Gained confidence as a trainer by teaching more sections during the holiday training classes. Increased Training Assessment scores drastically, by working with the training team to change teaching methods by making training interesting and more relatable to new agents. Developmental Needs (Describe the key competencies and performance factors you feel you need to further develop.) I need improvement on being more confident teaching unfamiliar sections. Slowing down and being less nervous teaching sections. I know how to teach the material and to do it efficiently but I need to doubt myself less. Being more efficient in posting Memos and Promos on the Hub. This includes using time management skills to ensure this information is posted for agents. Career Interests (Indicate your career interests including the kind ofShow MoreRelatedRetail Management8432 Words   |  34 Pagesretail chains. Firms with strong sales growth tend to fall into one of three camps – hot, high-growth youth retailers like Pacific Sunwear (www.pacsun.com), Urban Outfitters (www.urbanoutfitters.com), Hot Topic (www.hottopic.com), and Aero-postale (www.aeropostale.com), mature but re-invigorated multi-brand mega-specialists like Gap Inc. (www.gapinc.com) and Limited Brands (www.limitedbrands.com); and Chico’s (www.chicos.com), which stands alone within the channel as a result of carving out a veryRead MoreRetail Management8444 Words   |  34 Pagesand retail chains. Firms with strong sales growth tend to fall into one of three camps – hot, high-growth youth retailers like Pacific Sunwear (www.pacsun.com), Urban Outfitters (www.urbanoutfitters.com), Hot Topic (www.hottopic.com), and Aero-postale (www.aeropostale.com), mature but re-invigorated multi-brand mega-specialists like Gap Inc. (www.gapinc.com) and Limited Brands (www.limitedbrands.com); and Chico’s (www.chicos.com), which stands alone within the channel as a result of carving out a veryRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesEducation, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, p hotocopying, recording, or likewise. To obtain permission(s) to use material from this work, please submit a written request to Pearson Education, Inc., Permissions

The Geography Of Great Britain - 921 Words

Geography of Great Britain Great Britain is an island that comprises most of the area of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, one of the world’s leading nations. The island is divided into three countries: England, Scotland and Wales. It is the ninth largest and third most populous island in the world. The population is comprised of many different ethnic groups and religions. Great Britain boasts a strong economy and political parties abound. With an area of 88,745 square miles, Great Britain is the ninth largest island in the world (Maps). The island is located north of France and west of the Netherlands and is separated from mainland Europe by the English Channel and the Northern Sea. England, the largest country in Great Britain, claims 56.7% of the total area with 50,346 square miles and is mostly comprised of gently rolling hills and lowlands. Scotland follows with 34.1% of the total area and boasts 30,265 square miles of both rugged highlands and f lat lowlands, which are distinctly separated by the Highland Boundary fault line. Wales is the smallest country in Great Britain with only 8,134 square miles at 9.2% of the total area and has a varied topography consisting of mountains and hills in the north and plains and valleys to the south. The lowest point in Great Britain is The Fens at -4m and the highest point is Ben Nevis at 1,343m. The climate across Great Britain is temperate with temperatures between 32 degrees Fahrenheit and 90Show MoreRelatedEconomic Imperialism and Colonial Control in Canada1363 Words   |  5 Pagesimperialism. During the eighteenth century, when European powers extended their power beyond Europe, they gained significant control and power over different territories in Asia, Africa and North America. Important empires during that time included Britain and France, which sought to gain maximum control as they competed with one another. British power and presence was already strong in North America as compared to French power and therefore, Canada primarily became a British colony. A colony is consideredRead MoreDeclining and Growing Powers and Empires in Europe and the Rise of United States of America1454 Words   |  6 Pagesshift of power in Europe between Great Britain and Germany. Germany was challenging Great Britains power outright while the United States was indirectly challenging Britain on an economic scale. This essay will demonstrate how a countrys geography directly influences its economic and military statistics from 1880-1914 and also the significant tensions between the European countries. The dominant power at 1880 was Great Britain and she remained a powerful countryRead MoreBritain s Size, Geography, Climate, And Relative Location1302 Words   |  6 PagesGreat Britain is very beautiful, and popular country. Great Britain was founded in 1707, when the Acts of Union Ratified the 1706 Treaty of union. The national anthem is God save The Queen. Great Britain branches into three countries. Britain mainly flat and low lying, meaning it does not have very many mountains, or hills. Great britain Looks like a palm tree that has been cut in half. Great Britain is about half of the size of California. Great britain is a really interesting country with lotsRead MoreProfessionalizing Geography1272 Words   |  6 PagesAndrew Singer History of Geography Dr. Sechrist Professionalizing Geography Geography is field of study that has come a long way in history. It not as old as some of the other studies that were developed so many years ago but it has certain grown into professionalized discipline. Geography was very general in the beginning but as it grew disciplines then became available at the University of Berlin. All this and much more has contributed to becoming the recognized profession it is today. ThereRead MoreWorld War I Changed The World1115 Words   |  5 Pagesbeginning, it was meant to be the war that ended all wars. This Great War was unlike any war before; there was new technology such as tanks and machine guns, as well as new tactics such as trenches and war at sea. The physical geography affected the outcome of the war in great measures, both on land and sea. Mountains, sea, and flat land made the countries develop new tactics and strategies to fight the enemies. All aspects of geography resulted in struggles, whether it is disease or warfare strategyRead MoreDifferences Between Italy And England883 Words   |  4 Pagestoday. Both part of the EU, Italy and England are an example of how culture evolves and changes the shape of a country under every aspect. In fact, both England and Italy have been influenced by each other in the last 30 years. Geography Despite some similarities, geography is very different in the two countries. Both are bathed by the seas since England is part of an island while Italy is a peninsula connected to Europe through the Alps in the north of the country. Italy is located in the heart ofRead MoreEssay on Boer War960 Words   |  4 Pagesto 1902 in southern Africa between Great Britain and their allies, Transvaal (South African Republic) and Orange Free State, in what is now South Africa. Throughout the 19th century, after Great Britain conquered the Cape of Good Hope in 1814 and expanded its territory in Southern Africa, there was tension between the British settlers and the Dutch-descended population which were called Afrikaners or Boers. This resulted in the Afrikaner migration called the Great Trek, which was from 1835 to 1843Read MoreWar and Peace Among Peoples and Nations1716 Words   |  7 PagesDepartment of History and Geography MORGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Baltimore, Maryland 21251-0001. War and Peace Among Peoples and Nations: A Historical Examination of the development of World War II, and the impact on Europe and the world. By Instructor: Dr Aubrey A. Thompson. Course/Class: History 102. Date: Monday, April 8th, 2011 INTRODUCTION: Dating back to ancient civilizations, humans have always engagedRead MoreThe Age of Imperialism635 Words   |  3 PagesNorth Americans, such goals helped to defend imperialism. I am studying imperialism of Great Britain how they took control over China and the United States; how they took control over the Caribbean Islands and Philippines. Prior to their controls, I am studying how their motivations are the similar and differ from one another from their commerce and their government policy. In the early 1800’s, Great Britain had more colonies than any other Western nation. It controlled Canada, part of India, AustraliaRead MoreComparing the Industrialization of Britain and Japan Essay1553 Words   |  7 PagesComparing the industrialization of Britain and Japan Two ships can arrive at the same destination; however that does not necessarily mean that they used the same route on their journey. Such is the same with the industrialization of Britain and Japan. Both rose to become the two great pioneers of the modern world; however the paths they took to success were different. This paper will compare Japan and Britain, exploring the causes of its industrialization, and how the countries drastically changed