The History of Computers :: Technology Essays

The History of Computers In 1964, nobody, except for those with-in the field of study, had ever known about a PC. Presently, just forty years after the fact, pretty much every home in America is outfitted with at any rate one PC. A PC is characterized as a gadget that acknowledges data, as advanced information, and controls it for some outcome dependent on a program on how information is to be handled. The principal PC was not as quick or proficient as the PCs utilized today, anyway they are completely founded on the primary model. â€Å"Since the innovation of numbers, mankind has attempted to make instruments to help in performing calculations† (Moreau 4). Before 3000 B.C. there were tablets utilized for computing. The Ancient Chinese utilized a dab outline for tallying. Albeit rather inventive, neither of these computing gadgets was programmed. In the mid nineteenth century, a British cosmologist and mathematician had a thought that would change the historical backdrop of figuring for eternity. His name was Charles Babbage and he portrayed a machine that would be able to do an assortment of counts. Since the mechanical-building innovation of that timespan was not dependable or quick enough, he couldn't create his fantasy. Babbage’s thought depended on the scientific bits of knowledge of George Boole, who originally expressed the standards of rationale utilized in today’s computerized PCs (Computer 1). Additionally, Ada Lovelace, Babbage’s aide, is known as the principal software e ngineer since she presented program circles and subroutines. The improvement of hardware prompted the principal PCs. When electromechanical innovation entered the world, number crunchers started being delivered. The principal electronic number cruncher was worked by IBM. This is known as the IBM 603, which was made by Byron E. Phelps. Expanding upon this model, steps were taken towards the primary PC. â€Å"The IBM Selective Sequence-Controlled Electronic Calculator (SSEC) was made between the years 1945 and 1948 by a gathering drove by Frank Hamilton, one of the specialists who took a shot at the structure of the Harvard-IBM machine† (Moreau 39). Dismissing adding machines, the primary genuine useable PC started with the vacuum tube.

Analysis of Chapters 1 through 8 of Great Expectations Essay -- Great

Examination of Chapters 1 through 8 of Great Expectations Plot and Setting-The plot begins with a young man name Phillip Pirrip. It is a first individual story about a kid, harking back to the nineteenth century. The initial eight parts manage Pip’s youth years. It likewise manages what pip's identity is, and his family. In the start of the story Pip presents himself, and presents his dead guardians. He is in the burial ground, and afterward a terrifying turning man comes upward. The man undermines him. The plot of the story I believe is acceptable on the grounds that it manages the battles in a kid. He has nobody to go to. The creator truly helped us identify with the story. Pip gets in a tough situation at Christmas time. He gets hit with â€Å"The Tickler† which was a mocking name for an oar. In the story two officials with Muskets go to the house. They need a smithy. Outside they catch two convicts. One of those convicts is Pip’s convict. The other one is the one that Pip’s convict attempted to slaughter. They are both gotten. Later on in the story, and later in his life, Pip meets a little youngster named Estella. He furtively really likes her. Estella couldn't care less much for Pip. She thinks he isn't very courteous fellows like. She additionally imagines that he is coarse and normal. Estella and Pip do talk however. She resembles a mother to Pip, she sort of orders him. Pip is infatuated with her, yet she would have nothing to do with him. She feels that his is not much. Characters-The main character presented in the story is a kid name Pip, he is the kid I discussed previously. The following two presented, are his mom and father. They are both dead, and Pip is isolated in life acknowledge for his sister. That is who is presented straightaway. His sister is hitched to a man named Joe. Pip lives with these individuals. The startling convict depicted above was the following character brought into the story. Mr. Wopsle is the following character brought into the story. He was the representative at the congregation, and he additionally goes to the Three Jolly Bargemen with Joe. The whell-wright was Mr. Hubble, and his significant other. Joe’s uncle’s name is Mr. Pumblechook, he and Pip are entirely old buddies before all else segments. They share numerous encounters together. Miss Havisham and Estella are the close to be presented. Estella is Miss Havisham’s supposable little girl. Miss Havisham find... ...t around it, and he had a drawbridge. He cherished his home. Wemmick wound up being an awesome guide for Pip, since he helped him make some really intense descisions. Barnard’s Inn-This spot is only a dump. It is in a piece of the city where the structures are near one another, and Pip doesn't generally appreciate remaining here. He generally discusses a person named Barnard, in spite of the fact that there was no person truly named Barnard. This spot is certainly a spot where Pip won't have any desire to return to. The Temple-Pip appreciates this spot much better than Barnard’s Inn. Him and Herbert live there, and they share the room. They each have there own room in there, and Provis remains there for some time. I envisioned this spot as a sort of high rise that was not extremely present day. I can get a decent picture in my mind of what The Temple resembled. Joe’s Home- This is the place Pip grew up at, so I am speculating this is the place his most prominent recollections are. So much had occurred in that house, since the time he was close to nothing and even up to when Joe and Biddy were hitched. That house to me generally appeared to be so out in the center of no place, yet at the same time warm and an incredible family condition. An average nation home.

Eye Of The Storm

Eye Of The Storm Hi all, I am here in the office preparing the blogs for the post-decision-release onslaught of comments. Its eerily quiet, which is both nice and unsettling at the same time. In the last two months days, nights, weekends, whenever I cant remember a time in which I was alone here. I hope that all of my colleagues are still asleep they deserve it! Im sitting here reflecting on the class we just admitted and feeling incredible about it. Weve admitted some great classes over the years, but theres something about this one that just feels perfect. (Yes, I say that every year. Yes, its true every year.) Having said that, there are of course many of you to whom we were not able to offer admission, and I am feeling equally sad about that. Having you in the class would have made it no less perfect. But the numbers are the numbers, and there are only so many spots. Shannon 12 did an amazing thing for me and calculated whether my job is net joy or net sorrow as a function of admitting, not admitting, and time. Maybe shell let me blog her results sometime. ;-) Anyway, I need to go get some things set up before we release decisions at noon. If youre looking for a way to pass the time, and you havent read this already, check out this post from a couple of years ago. Hopefully it will help you understand what the last few weeks have been like for us. Best of luck to you all! Im thinking about you. -B

Aspects Of Mood Presented Into The Love Song Of J. Alfred...

Aspects of Mood Presented Through Setting in The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock and Something Whispered in the Shakuhachi The element of setting plays an important part in The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T. S. Eliot and Something Whispered in the Shakuhachi by Garrett Hongo as they give readers a sense of the narrators emotions and perspectives. Although the settings of both poems are presented in similar ways, they reflect on different aspects of the narrators mood. First of all, the settings in both poems are presented explicitly. In The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, details and features of the period and occasion are stated in each stanza. Phrases such as half-deserted streets (Eliot 4), one-night cheap hotels (6), the yellow fog (15) and soft October night (21) give readers a general idea of the surroundings of the narrator, which is a gloomy, foggy city like London. The poem Something Whispered in the Shakuhachi takes place in three periods: Before the war, during the war and after the war. The text shows the narrator grows bamboo in ditches next to the fields ( Hongo 9), lines like all through relocation (55) and in the desert where they put us (56) indicate he is ordered to be in relocation camp in the deserts when World War Two takes place, and he lives on a land next to the swamp (65) after the war. Similar to The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, this poem also has the description of its setting provided, yet not asShow MoreRelatedThe Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock Essay1524 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿Question: Part A: Analyze the social and historical context of a particular poem Poem: T. S. Eliot, ‘The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock The context of any given text whether poetry, novels or a movie is always integral to its understanding. Social and historical context of not only the given text, but the writer’s context and reader’s context play an important role in the interpretation and understanding of the major ideas, issues, values and beliefs within the text. T.S (Thomas Stearns) EliotRead MoreLiterary Analysis Of The Love Song Of J. Alfred Prufrock Essay1336 Words   |  6 PagesA Literary Analysis of T.S. Eliot’s â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock† T.S. Eliot was one among few poets and authors that dominated the years between the First and Second World Wars. Eliot showed his use of modernism techniques through â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock†, creating a powerful reputation around the world, particularly as a member of The Lost Generation in the 1920s. Eliot moved to and settled in London where he worked with famous poets including Ezra Pound, and published hisRead MoreAnalysis Of The Appearance Theme By T. S. Eliot, Tennessee Williams, And Arthur Miller2539 Words   |  11 Pageslight on the theme with their works â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,† A Streetcar Named Desire, and Death of a Salesman. First off, appearance was exceedingly significant in T.S. Eliot’s â€Å"The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock,† and readers have a lot to learn from this work. Before examining the theme, the poem’s basic plot, as well as the author of the work, needs to be understood; the poem began with a gloomy man, almost certainly named J. Alfred Prufrock, walking around a foggy city (Eliot, 2006)Read MoreAnalysis Of Araby And The Love Song Of J. Alfred Prufrock1776 Words   |  8 Pagesgets in succeeding puts a smile on the faces of many. In most cases, it calls for celebrations with less focus on the hurdles and obstacles that one had gone through in becoming successful. Many are the times that our spirits have aroused in a joyful mood or a dance out of impulse for a job well done. It could be struggling academically and finally graduating with honors. It could be spending many months looking for a job and getting hired by one of the best companies in the country or fina lly marryingRead More Message of Hope in Eliots The Waste Land, Gerontion, and The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock2426 Words   |  10 PagesMessage of Hope in Eliots The Waste Land, Gerontion, and The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚   Thomas Stearns Eliot was not a revolutionary, yet he revolutionized the way the Western world writes and reads poetry. Some of his works were as imagist and incomprehensible as could be most of it in free verse, yet his concentration was always on the meaning of his language, and the lessons he wished to teach with them. Eliot consorted with modernist literary iconoclast Ezra Pound butRead MoreStudy Guide Literary Terms7657 Words   |  31 PagesAcquainted with the Night provides us with an example of alliteration,: I have stood still and stopped the sound of feet. The repetition of the s sound creates a sense of quiet, reinforcing the meaning of the line 3. allegory – Where every aspect of a story is representative, usually symbolic, of something else, usually a larger abstract concept or important historical/geopolitical event. Lord of the Flies provides a compelling allegory of human nature, illustrating the three sides of the

Batman and the Bush Administration Essay - 1110 Words

Smoke billows out from a Manhattan skyscraper, damaged by a fiery explosion. This could easily be a scene from 9/11, however we see Batman looking grimly on as a poster advertises the film will be released soon. Clearly this film plays on the fears of terrorism. As depicted in The Dark Knight, the Joker plays the terrorist, while Gotham’s leadership struggles to contain him. The film departs from the superhero ideals of pure good versus pure evil, showing a murky world where moral decisions have to be made in order to stop evil. Because of this, The Dark Knight seems to be an allegory for the War on Terrorism. This paper will look at how the Joker represents terrorism, while Batman represents George Bush and his administration’s War on†¦show more content†¦The Joker appears motivated not by greed, but by a twisted, illogical ideology. Once he has access to the Mafia’s money he burns it. Instead of robbing the bank for money he does it to gain power over various crime syndicates, so he can spread the breakdown of law and order. One critic argued that this shows the Joker is an anarchist (Knight) and not motivated by an ideology. While the Joker takes pleasure in the breakdown of a peaceful society, he is no more an anarchist than Osama bin Laden when bin Laden boasted that the difference between him and Americans was â€Å"loving death† (Stengel). The Joker can also be seen as an ideologue. He wants to make Gothamists violent like him. This happens when he tells passengers on two ferries to explode the other ferry. If neither group blows the other one up, both ferries will explode. The Joker claims this is to show that all humanity is like him. The lesser Jihad as practiced by groups like Al-Qaida is to spread the Islamic state (Firestone 17), much as the Joker attempted to spread his violence to all of Gotham. George W. Bush is represented by Batman. The local officials call Batman using a high intensity light with a gobo of Batman’s symbol. This Batman silhouette had an eerie resemblance to the â€Å"W† used as an epithet for George Bush. Batman is also portrayed as a shadowy vigilante figure, showing up often times in the dark. He also worksShow MoreRelatedThe Dark Knight Unraveled 1308 Words   |  5 Pagesdefies this stereotype. His name: Batman. Batman has been around for nearly seventy-five years and has evolved into a a very controversial character. Some people may see Batman as a dark figure who is not a hero, but a nuisance, while others may see him as something greater than a superhero. In Christopher Nolan’s, The Dark Knight, released in 2008, Batman is a character who is seen in a different way than previous iterations. Instead of just a crime-fighting hero, Batman is presented as something greaterRead MoreInventions Of The Great Depression1980 Words   |   8 PagesCongress in a range of 100 days, although, after time passed on until 1935, these laws got weaker and people got angrier and inpatient until Roosevelt released a second set of New Deal plans that were more effective, such as the Works Progress Administration (WPA), a bill that provided jobs for unemployed but were not allowed to compete in industry; his most famous bill, the Social Security Act of 1935, would give payments and insurance to millions of unemployed Americans, and this bill would protectRead More Arnold Essays2560 Words   |  11 Pagesworldwide, his greatest commercial success to date and one of the biggest grossing films of the decade. To this day, Schwarzenegger continues to be the driving force behind many of the industrys biggest blockbusters, including True Lies, Eraser, Batman and Robin, Kindergarten Cop and End of Days. He even became active behind the scenes of movie-making, directing an episode from the popular HBO series Tales from the Crypt called The Switch and a Turner Network Television (TNT) remake of the holidayRead MoreChild Soldiering in the World2829 Words   |  11 Pagesin combat with trained soldiers. Many would find it striking that though children are fighting and are not aware of â€Å"how old they are† (Singer, 2005). Minors are seized from small towns and no longer receive proper education when they arrive at the bush. Children are not aware of their own age therefore they wouldn’t be able to know other important things either. A child should know how old they are it is a basic thing. But children are lonely; having to kill their families they don’t have the extraRead MoreToys R Us8534 Words   |  35 Pagesmanagement needs to quickly respond to the crisis of losing its distribution center in Kobe. Toys R Us Japan (A) Tuesday, January 6, 1992, Toys R Us (TRU) Grand Opening in Kashihara, Naraken, Japan. Arriving by helicopter, U.S. President George Bush appeared at the opening ceremonies for the second TRU store in Japan. Attending were Minister Kozo Watanabe of Japan s Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), U.S. Commerce Secretary Robert Mosbacher, U.S. Ambassador to Japan MichaelRead MoreContemporary Issues in Management Accounting211377 Words   |  846 Pagesabout basic management accounting technologies, such as budgeting and costing systems, is a fundamental rite of passage for practising accountants. Indeed, this experience is shared by graduates from many tertiary programmes (students of health administration, engineering, building, etc.) who are required to possess some elementary competence in Wnancial management. Underpinning these educational experiences is a belief that understanding management accounting enables participation in activities directedRead MoreMarketing Mistakes and Successes175322 Words   |  702 PagesGross and Benoy Joseph. From Wiley: Judith Joseph, Kimberly Mortimer, Carissa Marker. Robert F. Hartley, Professor Emeritus College of Business Administration Cleveland State University Cleveland, Ohio R.Hartley@csuOhio.EDU ABOUT THE AUTHOR Bob Hartley is Professor Emeritus at Cleveland State University’s College of Business Administration. There he taught a variety of undergraduate and graduate courses in management, marketing, and ethics. Prior to that he taught at the University Read More_x000C_Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis355457 Words   |  1422 Pagesquantitative) if each observation is a number. .......................................................................................................................................... Example 1.5 Airline Safety Violations The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) monitors airlines and can take administrative actions for safety violations. Information about the ï ¬ nes assessed by the FAA appeared in the article â€Å"Just How Safe Is That Jet?† (USA Today, March 13, 2000). Violations that could lead to aRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 Pagesoccurs among other arguments. Exercises General Exercises 1. If two people disagree with each other, then one of them is not a critical thinker. a. true b. false ââ€"   2. According to the U.S. Department of Agricultures Food and Drug Administration, the four major food groups are corn, pork, beer, and Jell-O salad with marshmallows. Which food group is preferred by future Italian diplomats? a. corn b. pork c. beer d. Jell-O salad with marshmallows.37 3. Ok, you math geniuses, a farmer

Undaunted Courage Outline Free Essays

Chapter 1 Youth 1774 – 1792 Summary and Analysis Meriwether Lewis’s ancestry, birth, and early life are considered. Lewis is born August 1774 in Virginia to William Lewis and Lucy Lewis nye Meriwether, cousins. Lewis is born on the eve of the American Revolutionary War and his ancestry includes numerous military accomplishments in both lines. We will write a custom essay sample on Undaunted Courage Outline or any similar topic only for you Order Now Lewis has an older sister, Jane, and a younger brother, Reuben. William Lewis dies of pneumonia in 1779; thereafter Nicholas Lewis, William’s older brother, becomes family guardian pending Lewis’ attainment of legal age. Lucy Lewis remarries in 1980 to John Marks, and has two additional children—John Hastings and Mary Garland. One significant family friend is Thomas Jefferson, future president of the United States of America and a nearby plantation owner. As a young boy, Meriwether spends a considerable amount of time out of doors, including accompanying a frontier pioneer group to a new settlement. He is considered to be curious, inquisitive, coolheaded, and courageous†¦ Chapter 2 Planter 1792 – 1794 Summary and Analysis Also read: Why Nations Fail Chapter 5 Summary During his youth, Lewis develops excellent skills in riding, hiking, and outdoor skills as well as a penchant for what he refers to as ‘rambling’; that is, adventure and wilderness travel. He develops a scrupulous honesty and is widely considered trustworthy. He assumes plantation management with minor misgiving over having given up his formal education. Nevertheless, he is a capable administrator, constantly increasing the size of his land holdings. Like most other plantation owners, he is land rich and cash poor. Slaves work his plantation and, like most men of the era, Lewis is not troubled by the moral quandary slavery presents. He esteems Native Americans as the archetypical noble savage and believes that one day they will accept European civilization and become productive and co-equal citizens; he simultaneously considers African Americans somewhat sub-human and incapable of the degree of energy and self-direction necessary for independent success in a free-enterprise†¦ Chapter 3 Soldier 1794 – 1800 Summary and Analysis During the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794, many young men, once children of the American Revolution, enlist in the military as a show of patriotic fervor. Among the new inductees is Meriwether Lewis who enlists as a private. Although only a private his considerable wealth, substantial education, and notable breeding ensure that, he spends most evenings in the company of officers. He finds life in the service enjoyable and fulfilling. Within a few months, he is commissioned an ensign in the Virginia Militia. After the rebellion is quelled the army ranks are rapidly thinned through cutbacks, but Lewis retains his position even with little experience—a fact which speaks well for his capability as a junior officer. He is eventually assigned to be army paymaster and spends many months traveling extensively through the western frontier areas of the growing nation. He meets most army officers personally and gets to know their opinions†¦ Chapter 4 Thomas Jefferson’s America 1801 Summary and Analysis When Thomas Jefferson becomes President of the United States of America, the nation numbers slightly less than five and one-half million people. That includes approximately one million slaves. Geographically, the nation is a vast open country, nearly limitless in potential, and nearly completely unknown. Overland travel is slow and difficult, seldom averaging more than a score of miles in a day—even over a rarely encountered roadway. Rivers form the dominant highways and are the only way to transport substantial bulk materials. The relative positions of the Eastern seaboard states are known, as is the position of the distant Oregon country. Roughly, three thousand miles of terra incognita lay in between. Jefferson incorrectly speculates that a water route along major rivers probably exists which could link the two population centers. Meanwhile, many European nations, including Spain, France, England, and Russia, are vying for control of the interior of North America. Such†¦ Chapter 5 The President’s Secretary 1801 – 1802 Summary and Analysis Meriwether Lewis is serving as army paymaster, when Thomas Jefferson offers him the highly sought after job as personal secretary to the president. Lewis immediately accepts the job. Though he leaves active service, he retains his commission and right to promotion. Jefferson selects Lewis largely because he is a staunch Republican and, importantly, because he knows nearly all of the officers in the army on a personal basis. One of the first tasks Lewis completes is an encyclopedic rating of all commissioned officers, placing them into one of several categories, which largely established their capability as officers and their political beliefs. Many officers are dismissed from the service, chiefly those who are incompetent but also many who are politically hostile to the new administration. Lewis performs many duties as secretary, including constant visits with congress and interaction with significant political persons. In fact, Lewis delivers Jefferson’s first ‘state of the†¦ Chapter 6 The Origins of the Expedition 1750 – 1802 Summary and Analysis From the earliest days of colonization, the national interest had been captivated by the vast interior space. Many voyages of interior exploration were planned but virtually none had come to fruition. Jefferson had personally championed several attempts. On the most promising attempt, the noted adventurer Andry Michaux was selected. Jefferson raised funds through private subscription and Michaux commenced his voyage of exploration. Before getting far, however, Jefferson discovered Michaux was actually an agent of the French government, causing the entire exertion to be canceled. Because of these many unsuccessful experiences, Jefferson comes to believe that a voyage of national exploration would require the financial backing of the Federal Government. In 1787, a British explorer reports crossing northern Alberta and reaching the Pacific coast near Columbia. Coupled with the recent retrocession of the Louisiana territory from Spain to France the news galvanizes Jefferson; he determines immediately to act to preserve the†¦ Chapter 7 Preparing for the Expedition January – June 1803 Summary and Analysis Jefferson personally attends to Lewis’ requisite education. As well, Jefferson contacts experts in significant fields and enlists their open-ended assistance as educators, peers, and advisors for Lewis. Lewis thus has unrestricted access to the brightest minds in the nation while preparing for his voyage of discovery. Meanwhile, the various details of planning and organization are covered throughout the chapter. Jefferson develops an extensive document containing instruction, advice, and orders. Lewis makes up lists of supplies and costs, and estimates how many men might be required to successfully complete the voyage. Lewis also spends a great deal of time learning how to perform geographic observations to fix latitude and longitude. Toward the end of the period discussed in the chapter Lewis begins to accumulate the vast stores of impedimenta required for such a long journey; he in particular spends time at Harpers Ferry securing firearms and overseeing the construction of an†¦ Chapter 8 Washington to Pittsburgh June – August 1803 Summary and Analysis Lewis returns to Washington and spends several critical weeks with Jefferson. Copies of the voyage orders document are circulated among Jefferson’s intimate circle and various revisions are proposed and accepted. Lewis meanwhile continues to gather maps and fragmentary knowledge of the deep interior of the continent. Jefferson writes and signs a carte blanche order allowing Lewis to draw any funds or equipment from any branch or station of the United States Government; it also requests private enterprises to assist Lewis so far as practicable and orders military installations to cooperate with Lewis in any circumstance. The author notes the document is the most unlimited letter of credit ever issued by an American president. During this time, a second officer was considered indispensable to the voyage’s success; Lewis immediately extends the offer, by post, to his old friend William Clark. Clark of course accepts the invitation, forming the most-famous partnership in†¦ Chapter 9 Down the Ohio September – November 1803 Summary and Analysis Lewis begins the trip by boarding the newly constructed keelboat and proceeding down the Ohio River. The extreme lateness of the season (Lewis had hoped to be leaving months previously) insured that the Ohio’s waters were very low. Thus, the initial stages of the trip were very slow and the keelboat made only ten or so miles each day. Lewis begins recording in his journal on August 31, the day he left. The text then considers the nature of the journals; Lewis never recorded whether the journals were written during or after the expedition. Further, there are frequent large gaps in the journals where nothing is recorded—for example, May 14, 1804 to April 7, 1805. Modern histories do not know if these journals are lost or if Lewis simply did not record his observations for these prolonged periods. At any event, Lewis continues on his voyage. The snail’s pace gradually†¦ Chapter 10 Up the Mississippi to Winter Camp November 1803 – March 1804 Summary and Analysis The mighty Mississippi River quickly convinces Lewis and Clark that they will need still more men to be successful. Over the next several weeks, the men worked the keelboat and pirogues against the current, difficult hard work claiming only a few miles of progress each day. The party continued on, stopping at trading posts and forts to obtain supplies and review potential recruits. The party eventually reaches St. Louis and a brief period of political intrigue follows wherein the local Spanish political commander refuses to allow entry to the Americans until the official land transfer of the upper Louisiana territories occurs. While in St. Louis Lewis sends and receives mail, notably from Jefferson. Additional men and supplies previously sent overland, rendezvous with the river party. With the season and political situation over, the party subsequently winters at Camp Wood near St. Louis. Finally, in mid-March, the political handover is accomplished†¦. Chapter 11 Ready to Depart April – May 21, 1804 Summary and Analysis In the spring, Lewis and Clark purchase more provisions and ready to leave. Clark’s commission finally arrives; startlingly it is for a lieutenant’s commission and not a captain’s commission as Lewis had promised. Nevertheless, Clark accepts the commission, though obviously disappointed. Lewis suggests and Clark agrees that they two alone will know the true situation—to everyone else on the entire voyage, and for years afterward, Clark is known as Captain William Clark and viewed as Lewis’ co-commander on the voyage. Lewis appoints an authorized agent in St. Louis, sends of final communiquys, and readies his personal gear for departure. Many of the men attend a final mass service. In the afternoon, the party departs amidst rain, thunder, lightning, and the cheering of assembled crowds. For the next two or more years the party knows there will be no letters, no communication and no supplies from their homes. They are isolated†¦ Chapter 12 Up the Missouri May – July 1804 Summary and Analysis By dint of nearly superhuman endurance and raw physical strength, the party forces the heavy keelboat against the current of the mighty Missouri River, making up to twenty miles progress some days. The party reaches the Osage River, the Kansas River, and then the Platte River, passing tiny outposts of advance settlers and trappers. One settlement of note is Boone’s Settlement in Kentucky—founded by Daniel Boone. History does not record whether Lewis and Clark meet Boone. Strangely, throughout much of this period Lewis keeps no daily journal. Instead, he apparently spends his time walking ashore and collection plants, animals, and soils specimens while Clark, the better river-man, manages the progress of the keelboat. Lewis does issue a comprehensive Detachment Order, which allows modern historians to partially reconstruct the daily routine of the adventuring party. One of Lewis’ primary directives was the posting of an active watch to secure the voyage†¦ Chapter 13 Entering Indian Country August 1804 Summary and Analysis Lewis begins to realize the unprecedented possibilities offered to an astute botanist; he collects many specimens previously unknown to science and writes lengthy monographs using precise and technical terminology. The same paradigm presents with animal life—for example, on August 12, 1804, Lewis and Clark become the first Americans to see a coyote, which they called a ‘prairie wolf’. Near the end of August, the party shoots and eats the first bison taken by American hunters. The Garden of Eden qualities of the land are not lost on Lewis. Also during August, the party makes their first contact with Indians, meeting Otos and Missouris. Jefferson’s orders instruct Lewis to attempt to peacefully integrate the Indians into the growing American commercial system; Jefferson wants to replace British fur traders with Americans and hopes most or all of the various Indian nations can be integrated with the United States of America. Lewis will†¦ Chapter 14 Encounter with the Sioux September 1804 Summary and Analysis The Sioux tribes are widely regarded as well organized, militant, and aggressive. Jefferson’s instructions to Lewis specifically indicate that the Sioux should be courted especially vigorously as their cooperation would be extremely useful to future American expansion in the area. In early September, the party continues upriver and fortuitously encounters the lost private—he had assumed the boats were upriver from him and thus has been proceeding ahead of the party for a few weeks. Lewis finds the area of present-day South Dakota almost unbelievably opulent in animal life and he discovers several species—once, two in a single day—that are entirely new to science. Lewis and Clark commend with wonder at the hundreds and even thousands of bison that make up vast herds and on the plentiful bounty of the land. Ambrose once again notes that Lewis’ journals are silent for a prolonged period beginning roughly when the party meets the†¦ Chapter 15 To the Mandans Fall 1804 Summary and Analysis Throughout September, the voyage continues upriver through panoplies of natural wonder. Huge herds of migrating mammals are seen daily and enormous flights of migrating birds pass overhead. The weather temporizes and frosts kill off the clouds of mosquitoes, as the trip becomes one of entire enjoyment. The party encounters their first grizzly bear; they refer to it as a white bear. They also pass through the deserted outer lands of the once-mighty Arikara tribe; empty villages and lands a mute testimony to the mass deaths recently caused by smallpox and other diseases. Eventually they arrive at the Arikara heartland and discover a tribe about three thousands strong. The meeting proceeds well and the Indians are friendly. One chief accompanies Lewis and Clark upriver to the next great tribal area of the Mandans, ostensibly to negotiate peace between the tribes. Many outlying Mandan villages are also deserted due to smallpox, but†¦ Chapter 16 Winter at Fort Mandan December 21, 1804 – March 21, 1805 Summary and Analysis The winter proves exceptionally cold and difficult. Lewis and Clark and their men must rely upon the Mandan Indians for supplies and food. The expedition builds a sturdy fort complete with a palisade wall and substantive interior shelters. On one occasion, a lazy soldier scales the wall rather than issuing a password and waiting for the gate; he is observed by an Indian who subsequently scales the wall in imitation. Lewis and Clark are concerned now that the Indians realize the wall is more show than defense—in the event, however, nothing untoward occurs. The winter months are spent hunting, preparing for the coming season, and mingling with the local Indians. York, Lewis’s African American slave, proves interesting to the Indians who think at first that he must be colored with paint. Frequent minor political intrigues occur and are documented, as are some of the Indians’ sensationalistic practices. For example, the†¦ Chapter 17 Report from Fort Mandan March 22 – April 6, 1805 Summary and Analysis In the spring, the keelboat is packed and readied for its return trip to St. Louis—too large to navigate the upper Missouri, it is replaced by small canoes. The keelboat is loaded with specimens, journals, observations, maps, compiled Indian vocabularies, and many long letters. These form the final link between the party and the United States of America until the party’s return after many months of exploration. Lewis also sends an accounting of the expenses of the expedition to this point, including a list of all the various letters of credit he has issued on the journey. The expedition hopes to reach the Pacific Ocean and then return as far as the Mandan villages for the winter of 1805-6, and then return and report to Jefferson as early as September 1806. These predictions illustrate that even at this late date Lewis is underestimating the difficulty of crossing the Rocky Mountains†¦ Chapter 18 From Fort Mandan to Marias River April 7 – June 2, 1805 Summary and Analysis The expedition departs in early spring. Lewis refuses several last-minute offers of sexual adventure for the officers and men, even declining to take along several squaws for routine camp company. For many days, Clark guides the river teams of pirogues and canoes while Lewis with a few picked men hikes along the shore, hunting, recording observations, and collecting specimens. Because of the large number of the party—around thirty-five souls—a prodigious amount of meat is needed every day. Lewis constantly notes in his journals that game of all kinds is wonderfully abundant and, unalarmed by humans, easy to secure. For most of the upriver trek Lewis and Clark find the voyage exactly as the Hidatsas had described. Major rivers are found where their rudimentary maps indicate they should be, and the terrain and river conditions are as anticipated. Nevertheless, the journey is covering ground never before explored by modern Americans. Going†¦ Chapter 19 From Marias River to the Great Falls June 3 – June 20, 1805 Summary and Analysis For several days, Lewis and Clark try to determine which river—the Missouri or the Marias—is the true Missouri river. Because of the turbidity and temperature, all of the men conclude erroneously that the Marias is the true Missouri. Lewis and Clark, however, in complete isolation determine that the true course of the Missouri lies to the southern fork. Only much later would historians realize that the Hidatsa, traveling overland, would have entirely missed this fork of the river as it occurs in a great northern bend of the Missouri River. Lewis and Clark spend several days scouting a goodly distance up each river and making numerous observations. They finally conclude that the party must take the south fork. While Clark leads the water party, Lewis and a few picked men rapidly proceed ahead on land to discover if they have selected the wrong branch of the river. They make good†¦ Chapter 20 The Great Portage June 16 – July 14, 1805 Summary and Analysis The boat group soon arrives at the base of the falls. Sacagawea falls ill and is nursed by Lewis while the men cut timber and manufacture wheels and crude wagons with which they will haul the canoes and pirogues. The portage proceeds under fair weather but the work is grueling and accomplished only after many days of toil. At the head of the falls, Lewis assembled the iron frame of his experimental boat and has it covered with elk hide. This project is fascinating to Lewis but, apparently, Clark concludes at the outset that it is unpractical. In the end, Clark’s opinion proves correct—the hide covering of the craft cannot be effectively sealed and the constant and rapid leaking through the seams of the skins makes the boat perpetually swamp. After only a few hours of experimenting ith the completed boat, Lewis must conclude that his experimental craft—hand built at†¦ Chapter 21 Looking for the Shoshones July 15 – August 12, 1805 Summary and Analysis With overloaded canoes, the voyage proceeds up the Missouri River through difficult terrain. The Rocky Mountains enclose the river so closely that Lewis names the initial entrance ‘Gates of the Rocky Mountain s’. The voyagers proceed upriver searching for Shoshone Indians from whom they hope to procure horses. They pass what will eventually become the famous Last Chance Gulch, a location rich in gold. Lewis and Clark are not interested in mineral wealth, however—it is not easily portable and at such a distance from civilization would prove essentially worthless. First Clark and then Lewis take turns scouting ahead or ranging afar in an attempt to find the Shoshone. Clark’s feet become damaged and infected by Prickly Pears, but he still presses on. By the end of July, the men are becoming despondent because of the difficult river work. They are heartened when Sacagawea begins to recognize landmarks and informs them that†¦ Chapter 22 Over the Continental Divide August 13 – August 31, 1805 Summary and Analysis The next day the small group encounters an old Shoshone woman with a baby and engages her in very limited discussion, giving her some gifts. She leads Lewis and his few companions to the Shoshone village. A tense meeting follows where Lewis tries to make himself understood but is apparently mistaken for a trickster from a hostile Indian tribe, even though a white man. A period of tense negotiation follows but Lewis manages to befriend Cameahwait, the principle chief. He convinces the Indians to accompany him downstream to meet Clark. The Indians suspect a trap and thus warily accompany him. Lewis is dumbfounded to reach the location only to discover that Clark is not yet present. He uses several stratagems to calm the worried Indians until the following day when Clark does arrive. Finally, with Sacagawea’s language skills, the Indians’ fears are largely reduced and a series of agreements are†¦ Chapter 23 Over the Bitterroots September 1 – October 6, 1805 Summary and Analysis Led by Old Toby the party proceeds through the Rocky Mountains, covering incredibly difficult terrain. They meet a group of Salish Indians, purchase a few more horses and continue on. During the next week the weather breaks and snow begins to fall. The journey becomes very difficult and game is scarce, forcing the killing of three horses to feed the company. Fatigued, hungry, and depressed, the party makes little progress—perhaps ten miles per day—and reaches a critical breaking point. Faced with starvation Clark takes a few picked hunters and proceeds ahead at a rapid pace with the intent of hunting what game is available and leaving it along the trail for the larger party, led by Lewis. Lewis’ group suffers several accidents with horses and frequently loses horses during the night but continues doggedly though dysentery and venereal disease weaken the men. Finally, after 160 miles of difficult terrain and†¦ Chapter 24 Down the Columbia October 8 – December 7, 1805 Summary and Analysis The men recover their strength and make rapid progress down the river. Even with the cumbersome dugout canoes the party sticks to the water and runs through numerous long and dangerous rapids. Old Toby becomes so afraid of the rapids that he sneaks off one evening and is not seen again. In early October, the expedition reaches the Snake River. They meet the Nez Percy Indians and establish friendly relations. Although the expedition does not stay in one place very long, Lewis manages to compile some language vocabularies and makes some ethnographic observations, including noting that the Indians possess items obviously acquired by trading with European sailors and are, unfortunately, fond of stealing anything they can. By mid-October, they reach the junction of the Snake and Columbia Rivers. Toward the end of October, the expedition encounters a prolonged series of savage rapids. Rather than a lengthy portage, Lewis and Clark†¦ Chapter 25 Fort Clatsop December 8, 1805 – March 23, 1806 Summary and Analysis Amidst violent rain and windstorms, the expedition establishes Fort Clatsop, a small structure with two facing buildings joined by palisade walls to form a small interior parade ground. Lewis issues garrison orders and the long winter months of boredom begin. The men amuse themselves with sexual escapades among the receptive Indians, trading trinkets for partners and contracting venereal disease. Hunting parties wander ever farther afield and food remains very scarce. Lewis establishes a salt-making camp on the coast a few miles from the main fort—the men there boil seawater to collect salt. Throughout the winter, many groups of Chinook and Clatsop Indians visit—some are extremely friendly, others cause minor tensions. Most of the men of the expedition suffer from injury and illness at some point during the winter. Clark repetitively records in his journal that the area brings extreme boredom, monotony, and hunger. On one occasion a small group sets†¦ Chapter 26 Jefferson and the West 1804 – 1806 Summary and Analysis This chapter contains a brief analysis of Thomas Jefferson’s vision of the west. In brief, he subscribed to a vision of the United States stretching from coast to coast and considered that the Louisiana territory and the Pacific northwest were both rightfully components of his nation. A strident anti-British politician, he greatly desired to force the British fur traders out of American territory. Jefferson’s views on the proper treatment of Indians are starkly at odds with his historic presentation as a great libertarian and proponent of human rights—the Indians must either join with the United States of America or remove themselves; there would be no recognition of sovereign rights. Jefferson stated that commerce with the Indians was preferable to military solutions because commerce was more profitable. The chapter also includes a discussion of the reception in St. Louis and Washington of dozens of Indians who accepted Lewis’ invitation to visit†¦ Chapter 27 Return to the Nez Percy March 23 – June 9, 1806 Summary and Analysis The expedition sets out with a dread of the pending Rocky Mountain traverse. Food is scare and the men have taken to purchasing and eating Indian dogs. Lewis spends several days making jerky from what game is available. At the campsites through April many starving Indians visit, begging food and stealing trinkets. Tempers in camp flare as the thievery becomes more brazen and minor scuffles are common. On several occasions violent is averted only at the last moment. Rather than fight upriver against rapids and current Lewis determines to return along the Columbia route overland. The expedition has little left which is not necessary and when horses must be purchased, they must sacrifice part of their cooking kit to obtain them. At the end of April, the expedition meets and stays with Wallawalla and Yakima Indians; they are fed and receive more horses and are given information about trail conditions†¦ Chapter 28 The Lolo Trail June 10 – July 2, 1806 Summary and Analysis The party proceeds into the mountains and encounters snow so deep there is no forage for the horses and the trail cannot be located. After a brief discussion, they turn back. Several days later, they acquire Indian guides who lead them quickly and surely through the mountains. On the far side of the Bitterroot Mountains their confidence swells out of proportion to common sense and the party determines to split up and conduct separate investigations of alternative routes. In all, the Corps of Discovery will divide into five small groups and execute a reckless and complicated series of investigatory travels. Various points of rendezvous are established and the plan is delivered to the men. Chapter 29 The Marias Exploration July 3 – July 28, 1806 Summary and Analysis The text covers only Lewis’ expedition to locate the northern headwaters of the Marias River; the book does not cover in detail the exploration conducted by any of the other groups, though their experiences are mentioned in passing. This chapter thus deals only with Meriwether Lewis and the few men that accompany him. In early July they set off to discover whether the headwaters of the Marias River—and thus of the Missouri River drainage basin—extend beyond 49 degrees north latitude. If they do, then the United States of America can lay legal claim to more territory due to the terms of the Louisiana Purchase. The small group proceeds down the Big Blackfoot River as far as White Bear Island without major incident. They are happy to once again be on the plains where game is plentiful but they also once again find the mosquitoes nearly unbearable. They recover their cache†¦ Chapter 30 The Last Leg July 29 – September 22, 1806 Summary and Analysis Lewis’ group proceeds by water to the junction of the Yellowstone River, the site of planned rendezvous with Clark. Clark has left a note and moved ahead. Lewis pursues through a land of abundant game and abundant mosquitoes, making excellent progress without incident until mid-August. At that time, Lewis and a nearsighted one-eyed private are hunting elk when Lewis is shot in the buttocks. He calls out for the private who does not respond—Lewis hobbles back to the canoes and rouses the alarm of an Indian attack. The men go on the offensive but shortly return with the missing private and state no Indians are in the area. Later Lewis recovers another letter from Clark informing him that one of the smaller expeditions, having completely failed in its mission, has rejoined with Clark. Lewis thus spends a terrible night; too sore to be moved from the pirogue he passes the†¦ Chapter 31 Reporting to the President September 23 – December 31, 1806 Summary and Analysis In St. Louis, Lewis immediately writes a brief letter to Jefferson and also writes personal commendations for each of his men, noting with satisfaction that all members of the party have returned in good health. Lewis also once again appealed directly to Jefferson on Clark’s behalf, noting the successful prosecution of the adventure was due equally to both men. The group then spends a month in St. Louis settling financial affairs and playing the role of heroes, enjoying fame and being entertained. In early November the party proceeds to Louisville and then to Frankfort where it splits into various smaller groups that proceed to their various destinations. Clark goes to Fincastle, Virginia, to visit with friends, while Lewis continues on to Charlottesville with Big White, the Indian chief. Late in December, after a lengthy trip of many public appearances, Lewis arrives in Washington. No account of the initial meetings between†¦ Chapter 32 Washington January – March 1807 Summary and Analysis In Washington Lewis once again lives with Jefferson and spends weeks and months preparing reports and revising his journal. The men of the expedition are all rewarded with substantial but not extravagant land warrants and pay—for example, Lewis’ total amounts to some $7,262. Lewis and Clark both receive promotions, Lewis civilly as the Governor of the Louisiana Territory and Clark within the military. The book notes that Lewis is singularly unprepared to act as Territorial Governor and the appointment is one of Thomas Jefferson’s great mistakes. Clark soon departs for St. Louis but Lewis remains in Washington, ostensibly to see to the private publication of the journals of the expedition. Lewis, faced with competing publication of other expedition members’ journals, becomes uncharacteristically sarcastic about the relative merit of his subordinates’ journals. Meanwhile, Clark becomes engaged, and Jefferson begins to distribute seeds collected by Lewis to his eminent botanist friends. Much†¦ Chapter 33 Philadelphia April – July 1807 Summary and Analysis In the spring of 1807, Lewis leaves Washington for Philadelphia where he arranges for the publication of the journals, promised in three volumes costing $31 for the set. Lewis contacts several acquaintances for assistance in preparing the various volumes of the journals. Lewis’ biological and botanical samples are catalogued and then delivered, with Jefferson’s approval, to Charles Willson Peale’s Museum in Independence Hall. Lewis, recently admitted as a member, also lectures at the American Philosophical Society. He also commissions artists to render relevant plates for inclusion in the journals, and Peale renders Lewis’ portrait, as does C. B. J. Fyvret de Saint-Mymin. Lewis hires mathematicians to convert his copious observations into corrected latitude and longitude measurements. Finally, Lewis and Clark purchase one other journal written by a sergeant on the voyage, presumably to forestall its publication and subsequent competition. Strangely, amidst all this preparation for publication, Lewis overlooks the single†¦ Chapter 34 Virginia August 1806 – March 1807 Summary and Analysis In late July, Lewis travels from Philadelphia to Washington and settles his receipts with the war department. He then tours through several cities and acquaints himself with several young women who fail to meet his expectations, and a few more who for unknown reasons do not find him suitable. For eight months, Lewis’ whereabouts are unknown and through that time he accomplishes little more than nothing. Although he receives letters and correspondence from Jefferson and his family, he does not reply. Ambrose speculates that depression, alcohol, and malaria may explain his lack of production. At any rate, he appears in St. Louis in late winter of 1808 and produces a complex report on the situation of the Louisiana Territory. The consideration of the relative merits of the report consumes most of the brief chapter. Lewis suggests excluding the British from Louisiana Territory, greatly increasing the military presence in the area,†¦ Chapter 35 St. Louis March – December 1808 Summary and Analysis In 1808 St. Louis is a vibrant and multi-cultural city and the dominant western city in the United States of America. Ambrose describes the city’s unique flavor and brief history in some detail. Tensions between the old Spanish and French established business families and the new American businessmen are tense. Lewis’ predecessor, General Wilkinson, had administered the territory with one eye on his own pocketbook and thus the political and economic situations are complicated and uncertain. Administering such a complex and vast territory would be a challenge for an accomplished and professional politician—it was simply beyond the ability of the young Lewis. Lewis arrives in St. Louis devoid of the melancholic depression that has apparently afflicted him for the past several months. He rents a house and engages in the social life of the city, drinking hard and spending many hours in dissipation. He does attempt to manage the rabble†¦ Chapter 36 St. Louis January – August 1809 Summary and Analysis Lewis continues to work as the governor of the territory, making some good decisions and many bad ones. He begins to take regular doses of opium and morphine, ostensibly to treat his malaria—soon, however, he is strongly addicted and frequently addled. Moreover, he continues to routinely become drunk in the company of less-notable political hangers-on; by today’s standards, he would be considered an alcoholic. His personal finances are in complete disarray and his public expenditures are alarming. He arranges a merging of personal and public interests, which draws wide criticism—he helps to establish a fur trapping and trading company, grants the company a monopoly on trade, and funds the company’s initial expedition with public funds. All this, he justifies by charging the company with the task of returning Big White to the Mandan villages. Although not hugely aberrant in concept for the day and place, the scale of the questionable†¦ Chapter 37 Last Voyage September 3 – October 11, 1809 Summary and Analysis In early September, Lewis sets out for Washington. He brings along the journals of the Lewis and Clark expedition, a few personal belongings, and a huge dossier of receipts, notes, and requests for public expenditure. He hopes to arrange his documentation and present his case to the government so they will honor his many public debts. He travels initially by river but finds the heat and humidity intolerable. In addition he drinks heavily, takes frequent snuff, many pills, and opium. His behavior is wild and outlandish and he then attempts suicide on two occasions. He is put ashore in charge of an army captain who places him under suicide watch. Lewis writes some garbled letters explaining his delay to distant officials. After about a week Lewis’ derangement lifts and he determines to proceed overland to Washington. For several days, Lewis and several attendants travel overland. Lewis’ mood is dark and†¦ Chapter 38 Aftermath Summary and Analysis Many years after Lewis’ death, some researchers have proposed that he might have been murdered. Ambrose considers the evidence and dispenses entirely with the theory by noting that Clark and Jefferson both accepted Lewis’ suicide at face value. Lewis was malarial, depressed, and highly stressed. He was an alcoholic and a drug addict, an inveterate user of snuff, a habitual smoker, and frequently greatly over-medicated himself with curatives of the period, which often contained mercury. Any one of these factors alone could have motivated him to suicide; taken as a group they are a more than convincing rationale. Coupling all this with his widely reported erratic and despondent behavior, the argument against suicide appears insubstantial. Lewis’ estate is bequeathed to his mother and liquidated by his half-brother. The signal failure of his latter years remained packed into trunks—his unpublished journals. Clark obtains the expedition journals and travels to Monticello to†¦ Big Whitee Big White was a Mandan chief. He agreed to accompany the expedition on its return voyage and visit President Jefferson in Washington. He, his family, and a party of soldiers were attacked and repelled by a group of Arikaras on their return trip. gt;/p; Cameahwait Cameahwait was a Shonshoni chief who aided the Lewis and Clark expedition. Cameahwait’s people provided horses and Old Toby to guide the expedition through the Bitterroot Mountains. Cameahwait also turned out to be Sacagawea’s brother. Toussaint Charbonneau Charbonneau was a French Canadian. At the time he met the Lewis and Clark company, he was living among the Hidatsas as an independent trader. Sacagawea was one of his wives. Lewis and Clark eagerly signed him on as an interpreter, thus gaining the service of Sacagawea. Lewis was disappointed with Charbonneau, however, calling him â€Å"a man of no particular merit. Pierre Chouteau houteau, along with his half-brother Auguste, co-founded St†¦. Undaunted Courage | Summary Lewisaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ Early Life The first five chapters of Undaunted Courage detail Lewisaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ life before undertaking the expedition. Lewis was born to a distinguished Virginia plantation family in 1774. As a boy, Lewis spent several years living in a Georgia frontier colony. After his return from Georgia at the age of thirteen, he was given several years of formal education so that he would be prepared to manage the estate he had inherited from his father. However, he only spent a few years on the Virginia plantation; instead, he volunteered for the Virginia militia in 1794. He spent the next six years in the military, and his service required him to travel throughout much of the American frontier. However, in 1801, President Jeffersonaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬ a longtime acquaintance of the Lewis familyaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â‚¬ asked Lewis to serve as his personal secretary and aide. Captain Lewis quickly gave up his military commission and moved to the presidentaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s residence in Washington. Planning the Expedition Jefferson had long been interested in sending an expedition to explore the west. When Jefferson learned that the British were planning to engage in the fur trade in the Pacific Northwest, he was galvanized into action. In 1802, Jefferson chose Lewis to command an expedition to the Pacific. Lewis had three main goals: find an all-water route to the Pacific Ocean; tell the Indians they had a new leader and bring them into the American trading network; and explore the northern tributaries of the Mississippi and the Missouri rivers, which would determine the northern extent of the boundary of the Louisiana Purchase. Jefferson was also keenly interested in scientific inquiry. In preparation for the journey, Lewis studied geography, botany, mineralogy, astronomy, and ethnology with leading American scientists. He also made decisions on what and how many supplies to bring, what presents to give the Indians, and how many men to employ in the company. He oversaw the construction of a boat that would take the company up the Mississippi River. Lewis also decided he needed a co-commander, and he chose Clark, whom he had met in the military. Although Clarkaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s official rank was never promoted beyond that of lieutenant, which dismayed Lewis greatly, the two men shared command. While preparations were being made, the Louisiana Purchase was also completed, giving the United States ownership of much of the land over which the men would travel. Up the Missouri On August 31, 1803, Lewis set forth down the Ohio River. He met with Clark in Clarksville, Indian Territory, where they enlisted men in their Corps of Discovery. The party then sailed upriver to Wood River, where they set up winter camp. Clark oversaw the preparations for the trip while Lewis took charge of purchasing supplies in St. Louis. On May 22, 1804, the Corps of Discovery, made up of almost fifty men, was finally on its way. It consisted of a large keelboat and two smaller boats. The boats traveled more than 640 miles upriver before encountering a single Indian. On August 2, a party of Oto arrived at the expeditionaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s camp. Lewis told them about Jefferson, their new Great Father, and gave them gifts. On August 20, the expedition suffered its only fatality when Sgt. Charles Floyd died of a ruptured appendix. In September, the Corps met a large party of Sioux and visited the Sioux village. In October, the group approached the Mandan villages in present-day North Dakota. The friendly Mandans were at the center of Northern Plainsaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢ trade. The men built Fort Mandan, where they spent the winter. They also met a French-Canadian trader, Charbonneau, and his wife, Sacagawea, who joined the Corps as translators. A small group of men sailed back down the Missouri to bring back information about the expedition thus far. Westward Bound On April 7, 1805, the expedition was ready to move west. Eight days later, the expedition passed the farthest point upstream on the Missouri known by Lewis to have been reached by white men. The men hunted buffalo and had their first grizzly bear sighting. In June, the party crossed the Missouri and discovered that two large rivers met. They had to decide which river was the Missouri. They chose the south fork and followed the river to the Great Falls. At this point, the men had to carry their canoes overland. They had reached the foot of the Rocky Mountains and wanted to meet the Shoshoni. After several days, the men came across a Shoshoni party. Their leader was Cameahwait, who was Sacagaweaaâ‚ ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s brother. They traded for horses with the Shoshoni and hired an Indian guide, Old Toby, to take them across the mountains. Once across the mountains, the men traveled down the Columbia toward the Pacific. They discovered that rapids and falls broke up the Columbia for almost a fifty-mile stretch. The men shot the rapids while the important supplies were carried by hand. They continued onward to the Pacific. The party built Fort Clatsop as their winter camp. By this time, the party had very little goods left to trade. When the Clatsops would not sell them a canoe that they needed, Lewis told his men to steal it. In March 1806, the men turned eastward on their way home. Heading Home The men headed east up the Columbia, which was hard going. They decided to go overland instead and purchased horses from the Nez PercA ©. Lewis also hoped to persuade them to send some guides and diplomats with them back east. The Nez PercA ©, however, said it was too early to cross the mountains, but the Corps was determined to do so. They headed out but soon discovered it was impossible to keep to the trail, which was hidden under feet of snow. They realized the difficulty of their undertaking but luckily came across two young Indians crossing the mountains and quickly engaged them as guides. Thus they reached the other side of the Continental Divide safely. Lewis and Clark parted company briefly in July. Lewis wanted to explore the northern river that had met the Missouri, the Maria. He hoped that it would extend far northward, giving the United States more land. He took a small party of men. After several days out, they got into a fight with some Blackfeet Indians and shot two. However, Lewis and his men escaped unharmed. They met up with Clark at the Point of Reunion in present-day North Dakota, and the entire party continued on to Fort Mandan. Then they headed down the Missouri. They met trading boats, which gave them the first news of the country they had heard since their departure. They arrived in St. Louis on September 22, 1806. Lewis immediately sat down to write a report to Jefferson telling him of their discoveries. After the Expedition Lewis went to Washington in January and after that on to Philadelphia. He made plans to publish his journals. Jefferson also appointed him the governor of the Louisiana Territory. Lewis, however, did little work, either on the journals or as the governor. He did not arrive in St. Louis until March 1808, at which point he was already experiencing bouts of depression and drinking heavily. In St. Louis, he attempted to set up a fur trade business with his friends and invested money in land speculation. He also spent money outfitting an expedition to return a Mandan chief to his homeland; however, the government decided not to reimburse him for these expenses. Lewis undertook a journey to Washington but died, apparently a suicide, on October 11, 1809. How to cite Undaunted Courage Outline, Essay examples

Just in Time free essay sample

Inventory is an essential part of every business. Without inventory a business cannot produce and will most likely not succeed. Inventory control is therefore as vital because it is about managing and controlling the working asset which aids the business. In essence inventory control is about establishing values to inventory on hand, determining whether there are enough inventories to meet the demands of the business, ensuring that there is not too much inventory which could result in wastage as well as eliminating or lessening theft. How inventory is categorised is dependent on the business operation. Inventory levels within manufacturing enterprises will fall within three stock categories: raw materials, unfinished (also known as Work in Progress or WIP) and finished goods. A retail business for example a shoe shop will only have one kind of inventory and that is finished goods. Certain businesses will also adjust their inventory to reflect the seasonality of goods, once again the example of the shoe shop is used, in that the shoe shop might hold higher inventory of rain boots during winter than summer. We will write a custom essay sample on Just in Time or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The cost of holding inventories is also not to be underestimated. The costs to be considered are storage costs, labour, insurance as well as interest on unused inventory. With the aid of computer programs inventory management has certainly evolved over the years. There are several established inventory management models. (Pearsons 2010) The first one is ECQ or Economic Order Quantity which is concerned with how much inventory to order and is based on the premise that demand is constant and inventory should therefore be replenished at a constant demand. Within certain enterprises such as a hotel, this could also be termed par stock. The second method is termed MRP or Management Requirement System which accepts predetermined sales as an initial point. A software program then aids the timely delivery of the required goods which coincide with production requirements. MRP is considered a top down inventory management process because ordering decisions are seen as dependent on production needs. The third method is the JIT or Just In Time method. The JIT ideology is simple, by holding only the inventory you need in order for production you can reduce your costs and manufacture only what there a demand is for. By utilising this method companies claim advantages of increases on return on investment because the holding costs of carrying large inventory are virtually eliminated. However while this method sounds ideal, as the name implies there are many factors to consider including the need for stringent and extremely organised management and execution of tasks. The JIT method was first developed in Japan. As with most Japanese management methods it evolved within a business and further developed into an international accepted business method. The business in this case is the Toyota group and first appeared shortly after the Second World War. Beasley (1984) explains the formation as follows: â€Å"Within Toyota Taiichi Ohno is most commonly credited as the father/originator of this way of working. The beginnings of this production system are rooted in the historical situation that Toyota faced. After the Second World War the president of Toyota said Catch up with America in three years, otherwise the automobile industry of Japan will not survive. At that time one American car worker produced approximately nine times as much as a Japanese car worker. Taiichi Ohno examined the American industry and found that American manufacturers made great use of economic order quantities the traditional idea that it is best to make a lot or batch of an item (such as a particular model of car or a particular component) before switching to a new item. They also made use of economic order quantities in terms of ordering and stocking the many parts needed to assemble a car. Ohno felt that such methods would not work in Japan total domestic demand was low and the domestic marketplace demanded production of small quantities of many different models†. In order to determine when materials were required several information system tools had to be developed. Instead of a top down approach workers were now encouraged to think only of what they needed, so rather a top down management approach a â€Å"pull† approach was used. The tools developed were an information card (kanban), display board (andan) and error prevention (poka yoke). The control is now in the hands of the people doing the manufacturing, encouraging the employees to think for themselves. However, these just remain tools if the principles surrounding inventory and the elimination of waste are not applied. Collectively these principles and tools have been combined to form the Toyota Production System further termed the Thinking Production System. Another important factor is the immediate elimination of any defects within the manufacturing process as there is little room for mistakes. It is interesting to note that just as manufacturing firms use the terms JIT, the companies supplying the materials have developed their own system which is called VMI or Vendor Managed Industry. An example though is to consider the disadvantage of having the supply chain disrupted. A fire which occurred at a plant on a Saturday in Japan caused a halt in brake part production for Toyota. By the following Tuesday, Toyota had to close down its production line and lost an estimated $15 billion in sales. While the JIT system is obviously well suited to the manufacturing industries within developed countries it has seen little practical application in SME’s. Just as large manufacturing corporations can aid to any country’s growth, SME’s are too the oil which keeps a country running. Gunasekaran and Lyu (1997) state that SME’s fear the implementation of JIT because of the assumption of extra costs such as labour and materials. They go on further to state that JIT is more than simply adopting a new discipline, but going that one step further to developing a striving for excellence philosophy which is embraced. The JIT system is definitely not suited to all fields. One of the drawbacks is the need for an established and reliable supplier and as stated before will work best in developed countries. This writer is of the opinion that JIT is an ideal philosophy and cost saving technique for large manufacturing enterprises, however its practical application in other fields has to be adequately determined. REFERENCES Advantages and Disadvantages of Just-in-Time (JIT) Manufacturing and Inventory Control System article available ONLINE at http://ritalogisticsblog. wordpress. com/2010/04/12/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-just-in-time-jit-manufacturing-and-inventory-control-system/ accessed 21 August 2011 Gunasekaran and Lyu 1997 – Implementation of just-in-time in a small company- A Case Study article available ONLINE at http://www. cribd. com/doc/36656046/jit-sme accessed 21 August 2011 OR Notes – JE Beasley 1984 article available ONLINE at http://people. brunel. ac. uk/~mastjjb/jeb/or/jit. html accessed 20 August 2011 The Toyota Production System available ONLINE at http://www. toyotageorgetown. com/tps. asp accessed 20 August 2011 University of Liverpool 2010  œ Managing Resources – Third Edition Pearsons